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Psychol. In a further PET study, Goldin et al. Hum. 64, 970986. Soc. Biol. 4, 328339. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2009.06.026, Moore, S. A., and Zoellner, L. A. Habitual emotion regulation strategies and depressive symptoms in healthy subjects predict fMRI brain activation patterns related to major depression. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsycho.2012.03.005, van der Plas, E. A., Boes, A. D., Wemmie, J. (2010). Psychol. In particular, cognitive reappraisal is defined as the attempt to reinterpret an emotion-eliciting situation in a way that alters its meaning and changes its emotional impact (Lazarus and Alfert, 1964; Gross and John, 2003). Soc. Psychiatry 62, 642651. Parental support and peer victimization as mediators of the relationship between depressive symptoms and expressive suppression in adolescents. 9, 242249. Emotion 5, 175190. Disord. Front. 
Studies using ERQ have shown that the habitual use of these strategies varies systematically between individuals and is stable in time (Gross and John, 2003). No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Copyright 2014 Cutuli. Arch. doi: 10.1111/1467-8721.00152, Gross, J. J. doi: 10.1007/s00429-008-0189-x, Egloff, B., Schmukle, S. C., Burns, L. R., and Schwerdtfeger, A. Soc. Anterior cingulate cortex volume and emotion regulation: is bigger better? Even if it is not possible to rule out that the increased dmPFC volume in subjects with expressive suppression strategies is an a priori condition rather than a consequence of behavior, it could be speculated that expressive suppression is under internal control as consequence of the internalization of societal norms, customs and manners that govern the adequate or undesirable emotional expressions. Received: 15 July 2014; Accepted: 01 September 2014; Published online: 19 September 2014. Emotion 3, 4867. Neuroimage 58, 1015. Neurosci. Anyway, interesting recent studies demonstrated that culture has to be a moderator variable of emotion regulation, being the relation between expressive suppression and negative indicators of mental health stronger in the Western culture than in the Eastern one (Soto et al., 2011; Hu et al., 2014). Affect. (2007). At odds, expressive suppression comes relatively late in the emotion-generative process and principally modifies the behavioral aspect of the emotional responses, without reducing the subjective and physiological experience of negative emotion, which is not directly targeted by suppression and may thus continue to linger and accumulate unresolved. 4, 257267. doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016569, Khn, S., Haggard, P., and Brass, M. (2009). hb```@
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X)_`v8DJ]L Then, individual-difference findings on the dispositional usage of these two strategies will be taken into account. 69, 195205. doi: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2005.08.047, Richards, J. M., Butler, E., and Gross, J. J. Ther. Psychol. Learn. Are expressive suppression and cognitive reappraisal associated with stress-related symptoms? In contrast, the positive correlation of expressive suppression with dACC/paracingulate cortex and with vmPFC gray matter volume is in line with the involvement of dmPFC in the network linked to the inhibition of actions (Khn et al., 2009). Hermann, A., Bieber, A., Keck, T., Vaitl, D., and Stark, R. (2013a). Generally, negative affective pictures are used and participants are trained to reduce the emotional impact of the pictures by using cognitive reappraisal. Gross, J. J., and Thompson, R. A. 106, 95103. A., Perez, C. R., Kim, Y. H., Lee, E. A., and Minnick, M. R. (2011). Brain structural basis of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression. Pers. Psychol. doi: 10.1017/s0048577201393198, Gross, J. J., and John, O. P. (1998). (2009). Affect. Soc. Several studies have investigated the underlying neurobiological substrates of cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression usage. (2013b) found that dental phobic individuals with higher dispositional cognitive reappraisal scores showed a reduced activation of the right dmPFC and increased activation of the right vmPFC and the lateral OFC over the course of symptom provocation. Dif. 775 0 obj
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doi: 10.1037/a0023340, Tottenham, N., Hare, T. A., Quinn, B. T., McCarry, T. W., Nurse, M., Gilhooly, T., et al. (2008) demonstrated increased PFC, insula and amygdala activation during the suppression of disgust facial reactions in response to disgust-eliciting film clips. (2005). Strikingly, vmPFC (but not OFC) volume was positively related to individual differences in cognitive reappraisal and negatively related to expressive suppression usage. Brain Mapp. In the domains of interpersonal functioning and well-being, cognitive reappraisal was interestingly associated with better psychological health. The neural basis of emotion regulation processes have been further investigated by several functional neuroimaging studies by manipulating emotion regulation strategies (Ochsner and Gross, 2005). Emotion 13, 926939. Furthermore, reduced activation of the vmPFC along with amygdala hyperactivation and a dysfunctional recruitment of ACC and dmPFC has been observed in patients with specific phobia and post-traumatic stress disorder (Schienle et al., 2007; Hermann et al., 2009; Milad et al., 2009), most likely indicating reduced cognitive control of emotional reactions. Psychol. A disposition to reappraise decreases anterior insula reactivity during anxious anticipation. Emotion regulation: conceptual foundations, in Handbook of Emotion Regulation, ed J. J. doi: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2012.06751.x, Ohira, H., Nomura, M., Ichikawa, N., Isowa, T., Iidaka, T., Sato, A., et al. 79, 410424. Intentional inhibition: how the veto-area exerts control. Here we are focusing on reappraisal and suppression strategies, anyway other antecedent-focused (e.g., situation selection and modification, attentional deployment) or response-focused (e.g., use of drugs, social sharing, relaxation) strategies can be used in regulating everyday affective experiences. As conclusive considerations, further studies are required to outline more in depth the relations among structural and functional data, trait and state emotion regulation and their interactions. Composure at any cost? Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder and specific phobia. (2006). Cognitive reappraisal was a predictor of habituation during exposure to phobic stimuli rather than symptom severity. Using an exploratory whole brain approach, Khn et al. Bull. Psychol. (2006). endstream
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(1997). doi: 10.2466/03.20.pr0.114k22w4, Irle, E., Ruhleder, M., Lange, C., Seidler-Brandler, U., Salzer, S., Dechent, P., et al. Individual differences in two emotion regulation processes: implications for affect, relationships and well-being. Dissociable effects of conscious emotion regulation strategies on explicit and implicit memory. Recently, the correlation of habitual cognitive reappraisal usage with stronger down-regulation of amygdala activation during instructed emotion regulation was reported also in a group of patients with remitted depression and healthy controls by using functional MRI (fMRI; Kanske et al., 2012). Pers. 12 Articles, This article is part of the Research Topic, Neural Correlates of Cognitive Reappraisal and Expressive Suppression, Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). Gross (New York: Guilford Press), 324. Meta-analysis and comparison with bipolar disorder. Neural correlates of emotion regulation deficits in remitted depression: the influence of regulation strategy, habitual regulation use and emotional valence. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.5.2.175, Milad, M. R., Pitman, R. K., Ellis, C. B., Gold, A. L., Shin, L. M., Lasko, N. B., et al. The number of studies on emotion regulation has dramatically increased in the past two decades. Cogn. Psychol. Soc. Emotion 7, 354365. Otherwise, a modulation of behavioral and physiological responses can be performed (i.e., expressive suppression). (2011a) found a positive correlation between cognitive reappraisal and the volume of the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC), but not the ventral ACC, in healthy female subjects. $dV&pr{OxyHND(L2D)z:j#-6R'E8"$4k/Pp I @CI40K4p Mp#dx'J$' @MHah`)
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`i^uipDqXcIJp2$KRcMX2t44>. Furthermore, expressive suppression resulted positively associated with dACC/paracingulate cortex and medial PFC gray matter volume. 257, 486493. 
Interestingly, phobic individuals more frequently using cognitive reappraisal have an increased vmPFC activation during extinction learning and recall (Hermann et al., 2013b), probably related to a stronger extinction learning as following a successful CBT (Schienle et al., 2007). Trait self and true self: cross-role variation in the big-five personality traits and its relations with psychological authenticity and subjective well-being. doi: 10.1016/j.tics.2005.03.010, Ochsner, K. N., Silvers, J. Variation in orbitofrontal cortex volume: relation to sex, emotion regulation and affect. 92, 433439. Psychol. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.74.1.170, Gross, J. J., and John, O. P. (2003). Dif. Psychopathol. doi: 10.5127/jep.024411, Moore, S. A., Zoellner, L. A., and Mollenholt, N. (2008). 27, 215220. Reduced amygdalar and hippocampal size in adults with generalized social phobia. doi: 10.1176/appi.ajp.2007.07030504, Garland, E., Gaylord, S., and Park, J. Additionally, methodological factors (e.g., VBM vs. ROI approach) as well as sample characteristics (e.g., gender and age of participants) prevent a reasonable comparison of the results. In this neural correlates pattern the role of the insula emerges, not only in primarily supporting interoception and monitoring emotional awareness and outward emotional expression, but also as a relay point between the bottom-up signals from brain regions involved in emotional responding and inward emotional state, like the amygdala, and bottom-up signals from other regions involved in cognitive regulation and regulation goals, like the PFC (Nunn et al., 2008). Individ. As previously reported (Gross and John, 2003), women reported using suppression less frequently than did men. 140, 142148. Given that extinction learning as well as cognitive reappraisal are crucial components of exposure-based cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) of phobias, the findings by Hermann et al. Curr. Review of structural neuroimaging in patients with refractory obsessive-compulsive disorder. The final effect of this sense of inauthenticity can lead to negative feelings about the self, making more difficult the establishment of emotionally close relationships and rather contributing to avoidant, diverted and anxious relational behaviors (Sheldon et al., 1997; John and Gross, 2004). Symptom provocation and reduction in patients suffering from spider phobia: an fMRI study on exposure therapy. (2012). The neural bases of emotion regulation: reappraisal and suppression of negative emotion. endstream
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On the dynamics of online regulation of sadness using distraction and cognitive reappraisal. Neurosci. doi: 10.1037//0022-3514.73.6.1380, Sheppes, G., and Meiran, N. (2007). 
Biol. Affect. The cognitive consequences of emotion suppression. Rev. Individual differences in typical reappraisal use predict amygdala and prefrontal responses. Cogn. At odds, suppressors feel to have less social support, worse coping abilities, lower life satisfaction, self-esteem, optimistic attitude about the future, higher avoidance and lack of close social relationships and support, all factors increasing the risk for depressive symptoms (Sheldon et al., 1997; John and Gross, 2004). The social consequences of expressive suppression. Med. Neurosci. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-6494.2004.00298.x, Kanske, P., Heissler, J., Schnfelder, S., and Wessa, M. (2012). Individual differences in expressive suppression usage have been further associated with higher amygdala activation when inhibiting responses to sad vs. happy facial expressions (Vanderhasselt et al., 2013). Soc. PLoS One 6:e16569. 3:16. doi: 10.1186/2045-5380-3-16, Hermann, A., Schfer, A., Walter, B., Stark, R., Vaitl, D., and Schienle, A. In the second section, individual-difference findings are reviewed showing that using cognitive reappraisal to regulate emotions is associated with healthier patterns of affect, social functioning, and well-being than is using expressive suppression. (1999). Divergent cognitive costs for online forms of reappraisal and distraction. The top-down emotional control network via cognitive reappraisal engages also OFC (Ochsner and Gross, 2005; Hermann et al., 2013b). (2011) examined the structural correlates of the habitual use of expressive suppression of emotions. Soc. Cognitively, reappraisal results in unaltered or enhanced behavioral memory performance, while expressive suppression impairs memory performances (Richards and Gross, 1999, 2000; Dillon et al., 2007; Sheppes and Meiran, 2007, 2008; Hayes et al., 2010). 30, 28342843. Relation between emotion regulation and mental health: a meta-analysis review. Recently, using a voxel-based morphometry (VBM) in a large sample of young individuals it was analyzed the association of gray matter volumes of the a priori ROIs, including amygdala, insula, dACC/paracingulate cortex, medial and lateral PFC, with cognitive reappraisal and expressive suppression usage as well as neuroticism (Hermann et al., 2013a). Neurosci. It thus might be expected to require repeated efforts to manage emotional responses as they continually arise, challenging the individuals resources. Psychiatry 66, 10751082. In experimental studies, participants are exposed to emotion-eliciting situations and randomly assigned to use cognitive reappraisal or expressive suppression strategies or to act naturally (control condition). Emotion regulation and brain plasticity: expressive suppression use predicts anterior insula volume. In fact, individuals who habitually use reappraisal showed lower symptoms of depression, were more satisfied and optimistic, and had higher self-esteem, environmental mastery levels, personal growth, self-acceptance, coping skills, sense of autonomy as well as better interpersonal relationships (Garnefski et al., 2001; John and Gross, 2004). Anyway, a more frequent use of habitual (dispositional) cognitive reappraisal in daily life has been shown to be more adaptive. doi: 10.1037//0033-295x.94.3.319, Hu, T., Zhang, D., Wang, J., Mistry, R., Ran, G., and Wang, X. doi: 10.1037/1528-3542.3.1.48, Campbell-Meiklejohn, D. K., Woolrich, M. W., Passingham, R. E., and Rogers, R. D. (2008). Overall experimental studies have demonstrated that cognitive reappraisal has a positive impact in the affective domain by decreasing negative emotion experience and negative emotion behavioral expression without any increase in physiological activation. doi: 10.1017/s003329171100122x, Giuliani, N. R., Drabant, E. M., Bhatnagar, R., and Gross, J. J. doi: 10.1016/j.brat.2008.05.001, Nunn, K., Frampton, I., Gordon, I., and Lask, B. doi: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2007.05.014, Carlson, J. M., and Mujica-Parodi, L. R. (2010). Behavioral inhibition system activity is associated with increased amygdala and hippocampal gray matter volume: a voxel-based morphometry study. Neurosci. The effects of expressive and experiential suppression on memory accuracy and memory distortion in women with and without PTSD. Eur. J. Pers. doi: 10.1111/j.1467-7687.2009.00852.x, Vanderhasselt, M. A., Baeken, C., Van Schuerbeek, P., Luypaert, R., and De Raedt, R. (2013). Bull. Emotion regulation in spider phobia: role of the medial prefrontal cortex. doi: 10.1037/0022-3514.85.2.348, Gross, J. J., and Levenson, R. W. (1993). 25, 10331044. Mem. They found a positive correlation of right dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) volume with expressive suppression, but no association of any other brain area with cognitive reappraisal. In experimental studies on the effects of emotion regulation strategies in social contexts, one member of each dyad is generally asked either to suppress, reappraise or to interact naturally with their conversation partner. Biol. Psychiatry 63, 293300. It is evident that Hermann et al. However, expressive suppression may increase negative affect through its strict link with inauthenticity, specifically leading to feel bad about the self and even to depressive symptoms (John and Gross, 2004). Further, vmPFC volume fully mediated sex differences in emotion suppression and partly in cognitive reappraisal. Also PFC (executive functions, cognitive elaboration) indirectly participates in the emotional regulation through its connections with OFC. 13, 4661. A., Tranel, D., and Nopoulos, P. (2010). J. Neurosci. Spontaneous emotion regulation during evaluated speaking tasks: associations with negative affect, anxiety expression, memory and physiological responding. Levels of processing: a framework for memory research. (2006). [Epub ahead of print]. Psychol. The usage of cognitive reappraisal allows to implement and produce interpersonal behavior that is appropriately focused on social interaction and is perceived by the others as emotionally engaging and responsive. 85, 348362. It is well known that not all individuals experiencing adverse experiences develop anxiety disorders, as result of individual differences in the regulation of negative emotions. Hermann, A., Keck, T., and Stark, R. (2014). (2009). doi: 10.1007/s12264-011-1001-0, Barrs-Loscertales, A., Meseguer, V., Sanjun, A., Belloch, V., Parcet, M. A., Torrubia, R., et al. Trends Cogn. Furthermore, brain structural and functional studies depict a resulting brain network constituted by target regions for several emotional regulation processes. 
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